浅谈我国面临的绿色贸易壁垒问题及对策

浅谈我国面临的绿色贸易壁垒问题及对策

摘要:在这股高涨的绿色浪潮之下, 部分国家在国际贸易中构筑起非关税的“绿色贸易壁垒”以保护国内贸易。由于发展中国家与发达国家的环保水平存在着差距, 这就导致包括中国在内的许多国家在国际贸易中处于非常不利的局面。基于此, 本文分析了绿色贸易壁垒对我国的影响, 并依据于此,提出一些对策。

关键词:绿色贸易壁垒;影响;对策

在国际货物贸易中,从1947年的GATT 到WTO ,降低关税一直是国际社会的主题。时至今日,作为阻碍国际贸易的重要因素的关税壁垒已经在一定程度上得到了控制,而许可证制度、配额制度、原产地制度等非关税壁垒对国际贸易自由化的进程阻碍日益明显。同时,绿色壁垒作为新型的、重要的国际贸易障碍,应该引起我们的重视。绿色贸易壁垒是双刃剑,如果运用适当,对保护自然资源、全球经济的可持续发展是有利的;如果滥用,就会阻碍全球经济的发展,形成新的贸易保护主义。而目前因为种种原因,绿色壁垒的多样化、环境标准的复杂化、检疫措施的苛刻等,反映出绿色壁垒已经成为国际贸易的阻碍,反映出新的贸易保护主义的抬头,可以说绿色壁垒的被滥用已是不争的事实。

一、绿色贸易壁垒的含义

绿色贸易壁垒也称环境贸易壁垒,是指那些以维护人类健康和环境安全为目的而采取的限制甚至禁止有关国际贸易活动的法律、法规、标准、政策及其相应的行政措施,以避免这些贸易活动可能导致的环境污染与生态破坏,实现经济与社会的可持续发展。从另一个角度讲,所谓绿色贸易壁垒,是以保护自然资源、生态环境和人类健康为名,通过制定一系列复杂苛刻的环保标准,对来自其他国家的产品及服务设置障碍,以保护本国产业的一种新型的非关税壁垒。绿色贸易壁垒形式多样,包括绿色关税、环境配额、环境许可证、绿色补贴、

绿色标签、绿色包装等,具有虚假性、广泛性、隐蔽性等特点。目前绿色贸易壁垒主要有以下几个类型。

(一)信息壁垒

信息壁垒指进口国对涉及到进口的有关信息如商品绿色检测标准、制度采取半透明、不透明方式不予公开或故意延缓公开,或者频繁变更,从而使外国出口商无法及时正确掌握这些关键信息而无法顺利出口,最终达到限制进口的目的。

(二)技术壁垒

技术壁垒是主要的绿色壁垒形式,指进口国在制定关于产品内在、包装及绿色认证等方面环保要求时,故意制定针对出口商品的技术标准等法律要求或完全只考虑本国企业情况确定绿色认证要求。

(二)程序壁垒

程序壁垒一般是指进口国在制定关于出口商品申请认证、检测、验证等与进口相关行为的法律程序时采取歧视态度,使程序中包含歧视性的内容。

(四)文化壁垒

文化壁垒是指不属于以上三类,并非基于对进口国环境可能的破坏而是基于环境文化的不同而产生的进口限制,例如“生态倾销论”就是因为进口国认为忽视出口国环境质量方式生产的产品本质上包含有不公平的“环境补贴”,所以构成“生态倾销”。美国限制进口墨西哥金枪鱼的理由并非是对本国环境可能的损害,而是“墨西哥使用流网捕捞金枪鱼,从而杀害了数以千计的海豚”。这种壁垒主要原因是源自环境文化的不同。

二、绿色贸易壁垒对我国对外贸易的影响

本文主要从农产品和纺织品两个受绿色贸易壁垒影响最大的行业进行绿色贸易壁垒对我国对外贸易影响的阐述。

(一)绿色贸易壁垒制约了我国产品出口的增长

改革开放以来,我国农产品出口每年增加5%左右。但近几年来,随着绿色贸易壁垒的扩大和强化,农产品出口增长呈下降趋势, 并

由顺差转变为逆差。1997~1999 年我国农产品出口由144.22 亿元下降到128.51 亿元,下降了10.9%;与此同时,遭绿色贸易壁垒而受阻出口的农产品价值却高达200 亿美元。而这一影响也呈不断增强的趋势。2002 年,国外技术贸易壁垒特别是绿色壁垒对我国农产品出口造成的间接或直接损失达100 亿美元左右。2004 年我国农产品开始出现自改革开放以来的首次逆差,当年贸易逆差高达46.4 亿美元;2005~2006 年由于控制了农产品的进口,逆差额有所下降;2007 年,尽管出口呈稳定增长态势,但仍出现较大逆差,为40.8 亿美元,其中很大原因是由于我国农产品出口遭绿色贸易壁垒所致。

与此同时,我国作为一个发展中国家,纺织品出口是现在及今后我国对外贸易,跻身世界贸易强国之列的重要依托。但面临的困难之一就是发达国家制定的产品进口标准,例如防污标准、偶氮染料禁用令等,为我国纺织品进入发达国家市场增加了难度。如果发达国家在新的多边自由贸易体制中肆意推进环境壁垒,以保护本国市场为目的而提高产品的环境标准,对于实现我国加快纺织品出口的战略目标将产生影响,产品出口增长速度势必减缓。

(二)绿色贸易壁垒削弱我国产品的出口竞争力

我国农产品出口企业为获取国外认可的绿色标志, 不仅要支付大量的检验、测试、评估费用,还要支付不菲的认证申请费、标志使用年费;为达到国际的检验标准,出口企业要购买外国的先进测试设备,这都会增加出口企业成本。在成本优化及反补贴措施影响下,一些发达国家通过对我国出口货物征收绿色关税,对农产品质量标准的要求越来越高, 使这些产品在激烈的国际竞争中失去价格优势,制约我国外向型经济发展。我国农产品往往难以满足要求,经常被禁止出口、退货和甚至索赔,这也对我国农产品的国际形象形成了巨大的冲击, 降低了农产品市场竞争力。

而这种影响对纺织品的出口会带来更大的影响,众所周知,一直以来我国的纺织品出口都是以低廉的价格为主要的优势。而要达到欧盟发达国家的纺织品进口标准要求,就必须投入比发达国家高出很多

的资金和人力。一些发达国家对我国出口纺织品还征收绿色关税和反补贴税,这样,我国出口纺织品的各种中间费用和附加费用将大幅增加,使纺织品的出口成本大为增加,进而削弱我国出口纺织品的国际竞争力。

(三)绿色贸易壁垒提高了市场准入门槛,增加了我国产品开拓国际市场的难度

目前,我国农产品主要贸易伙伴有美国、日本、欧盟、韩国以及中国香港等地区, 与它们的贸易额占我国进出口总额的80%以上。而这些国家和地区大多数是世界贸易组织“贸易与环境委员会成员”,也是绿色贸易保护主义最为盛行的地区。这种市场排外将使我国的农产品出口市场面临缩小的可能, 对我国的农产品出口造成十分不利的影响。一些发达国家和新型工业化国家为防止外国农产品进入本国而利用WTO 协议和SPS 协议(《卫生与动植物检疫措施协议》)关于环境规定的漏洞,采用技术性贸易壁垒的手段, 制定一系列严格而又繁琐的卫生检疫制度对进口的农产品中农药残留量、卫生检验和保护特定物种的规定要求更加严格,这大大加深了我国农产品出口的难度,使得我国的许多产品由于达不到标准而无法进入其市场。

此外,欧盟各国的标准和法规主要都是根据其本国的生产和技术水平制定的,对于发展中国家的我国来说,往往很难达到,即使可以达到也会使我国纺织品成本增加,从而使产品竞争力下降因此这就对我国纺织品出口到欧盟无形中带来一道" 绿色壁垒" ,最终导致某些产品被排斥在欧盟市场之外。同时,由于我国纺织企业多数是中小型企业。纺织技术,环保等方面都非常落后,这些指令和标准必然迫使我国一些纺织企业无法进入目标市场甚至被迫退出目标市场。最具有代表性的是德国1994 年颁布的针对偶氮染料的禁令,就造成了我国104 种偶氮染料纺织品不能进入德国市场,限制了我国纺织品对该国的准入。

三、绿色贸易壁垒的应对对策

为了提高我国产品的出口效益, 提高我国产品在国际市场的竞争

力, 我们必须以开放的视角, 哲学的思辨, 充分利用中国经济在全球化框架内重新整合的历史机遇, 以积极态度研究和采取跨越绿色贸易壁垒的有效对策。

(一)顺应绿色潮流, 提高环保意识

公众和企业环保意识淡薄, 会成为突破绿色壁垒的重要障碍, 而改善国际贸易环境, 需要广大公众积极参与, 共同努力。因此, 需要加大媒体的宣传力度, 提高全民族的环境意识和可持续发展意识, 通过各种教育培训的形式广泛地宣传可持续发展的思想。在可持续发展宣传教育中, 要把对外贸易与环境保护结合起来, 使得各级外经贸工作者充分认识到环境保护工作在我国外经贸工作中的重要意义, 宣传教育的重点是对地方政府领导人和企业负责人的环境培训, 帮助他们认识到传统发展模式的弊病和环境保护的重要意义, 把环保导入企业的经营决策, 树立危机感、紧迫感。提倡绿色生活方式, 引导公众改变传统的大量消耗资源能源、不关注环境的生活习惯和生活方式, 建立绿色消费观, 提倡绿色生活方式, 鼓励消费不污染环境, 不损害人体健康, 对改善环境状况, 提高环境质量有利的产品, 使绿色贸易融入到每一个人的生活中去。

(二)宏观层面应该采取的对策

首先, 完善相关环保立法, 构建我国符合WTO 规则的绿色贸易壁

垒。我国政府应积极推动建立国内环境标志制度以及绿色生态税收制度和绿色补贴制度, 从而为我国成功应对绿色贸易壁垒提供法律制度基础。其次, 国家应不断加大对环保产业的资金投入力度并对绿色技术研发给予相关政策支持, 从而为我国应对绿色贸易壁垒提供技术支持。国家应该不断加大对绿色环保产业的扶持力度, 在税收和财政上予以大力支持, 并且在政府采购等领域对采用绿色生产技术生产的产品予以优先购买。最后, 充分有效地利用WTO 相关规则及冲突争端解决机制。一是我国政府应该在一些具备条件的高校中不断加大对熟悉WTO 规则的人才培养; 二是一旦有我国企业与他国发生涉及绿色贸易壁垒的纠纷时, 我国政府应该代表我国企业积极向WTO 申诉, 从而保护

我国企业的正当利益同时也能不断提高我国政府利用WTO 的相关制度解决贸易纠纷的经验。

(三)企业在应对绿色贸易壁垒时应采取的对策分析

在应对绿色贸易壁垒时, 政府的对策只是从宏观的层面加以引

导。在国家完成宏观政策的制定后, 企业要结合自身的实际采取更加具体的对策。首先, 企业以及企业的供应商应积极通过IS014000 / IS0900 等相关认证。只有这样才能保证从原材料的入口到成品的出口均拥有完善的管理流程, 才能使企业成功应对绿色贸易壁垒成为可能。其次, 企业应将绿色标准的相关规定转化为企业内部环保技术规范。每一个具体的企业而言, 首先要做的就是整理目前出口目的国所颁布实施的涉及绿色壁垒的相关法规, 对于适用自己的相关法规予以解读分析, 并将其转化为企业内部的相关技术规范。这是企业应对绿色贸易壁垒的第一步也是关键的一步。最后, 建立起企业间应对绿色贸易壁垒的联合机制。一方面, 相关企业之间应该实现绿色贸易壁垒的资源与信息的共享。另一方面, 建立起涉及绿色壁垒争端的联合应诉机制。

总之, 尽管绿色贸易壁垒有恶意与善意之分, 尽管绿色贸易壁垒具有一定的合法依据, 但是这都无法改变绿色贸易壁垒具有贸易保护的性质。我们并不否认, 在实施绿色贸易壁垒过程中能够对环境保护产生一定的积极效用, 但是其并不是绿色贸易壁垒制定者的原初目的, 因此, 积极的应对是必要的和现实的选择。

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[1]黄艳华. 绿色贸易壁垒对我国纺织品出口的影响及对策研究

[J].法制与社会.2009(7)

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翻译译文:

高等教育与WTO :全球化驱动

菲利普·阿尔特巴赫教授

高等教育日益被视为和其它商品一样可以出售和购买的商业产品。高等教育商业化已经遍布全球市场。世界贸易组织(WTO )正在考虑一系列建议,包括提高教育作为其关注的问题之一,以确保进口和出口的高等教育受世界贸易组织议定书复杂的规则和法律安排,并将限制最小化。在美国,国际贸易全国教育委员会和主要营利教育机构都支持这一倡议。确立的高等教育团体,包括美国教育理事会,并没有参与。世界贸易组织的倡议构成了对大学的传统理念的严重威胁,以及对国家,甚至教育体制的控制,因此需要仔细审查。我们正处在一个高等教育真正的革命之中,革命,有可能从根本上改变我们对大学的作用的基本看法。影响是巨大的,但目前很少讨论和理解。这是特别令人担忧,但并不令人惊讶,因为商务部的服务行业处正提供背后的努力,将美国和世界各地的教育更高的商业化。

我并不是反对全球化,无论是作为现实或作为一个概念。世界各地的高等教育机构受全球趋势——大众化和其全部影响,包括新的通信技术,学术机构对政府的义务,越来越多的国际和移动学术专业,全球研究网络等现象。

这些事态发展和许多学术机构和系统有国际化关联。英语作为科学沟通和教学的共同语言使用,尤其是在与互联网相结合,使沟通更加方便和快捷。多国高等教育机构的出现使得传播新课程和其他革新变得有可能,以满足学生的迫切需要和缺乏高等教育的国家的民族经济振兴需要。

几个世纪以来,大学被视为提供职业教育(法律,医学,神学)和科学学科的机构。

大学,独立的,并有时重要的机构,维护和解释,甚至有时传播历史和社会文化。在19世纪,研究是增加了大学的责任,今后来服务社会。

学术机构,主要由国家或教堂赞助。即使是私人赞助的被定义为服务需要的机构。高等教育被视为“公共利益”,对社会做出了宝贵贡献,因此值得支持。

大学是学习、科研和通过知识的应用为社会服务的场所。研究院是提供很大程度上的对来自社会的压力的绝缘——学术自由——精准的讲是因为它为社会提供更广泛的利益。教授们经常是长期任命——享有——保证他们在课堂和实验室学术自由授课,不受社会限制。 全球化的负面影响

在全球化的今天,例如互联网的兴起和知识的全球化可能为创造学术机构和系统在较小或比较贫穷的国家产生了严重问题。在进入中心和边缘划分的世界,这些中心越来越强大和更具优势的边缘越来越边缘化。不平等现象变得更加突出。有学术系统或个别大学的回旋余地很小的自主开发在竞争日益激烈和快速发展的全球高等教育由世界舞台,在工业化国家为主的一流大学。传统的学术中心变得更加强大,更有优势,主要是在讲英语的北方(美国,英国,加拿大)和在澳大利亚,国家和欧盟的大国(特别是德国和法国,并在一定程度上意大利和西班牙)。

规范,价值观,语言,科学创新,和国家在知识产品呼吁其他想法和做法。这些国家不仅对国内占主导地位的大学和研究机构,而且对新的全球知识体系,强大的国家。如微软和IBM 公司,生物技术和制药公司(默克或Biogen ),如Elsevier 和贝塔斯曼等跨国信息技术公司,几乎垄断了以知识和信息技术为基础的产品的新的国际贸易。小国和穷国在全球化的世界很难有自主权和竞争潜力。高等教育全球化加剧了世界各大学戏剧性的不平等。

知识和高等教育的商业化

随着高等教育日益商业化,市场价值的概念也已经侵入到校园。主要因素之一是社会对高等教育的态度的转变,目前正作为“私人物品”受益的学习和做研究。根据这种观点,它看来是有道理的,用户应该为这种服务支付他们可能会为任何其他服务的代价。知识的供给成为另一种商业交易。公共资金的主要提供者—国家,越来越不愿意或不能提供一个扩大高等教育界所需的资源。大学和其他中学后机构预计将需要更多的资金。他们不得不更多的像企业而非教育机构一般。

随着这方面的逻辑发展,公立大学私有化知识产品销售,与公司合作,以及在学生收费。各类私立学术机构的扩散,特别是营利机构,是另一个商业化产品。教育公司,其中一些自称大学,销售技能和培训,颁发学位或客户(学生)证书。研究被视为一种可替代产品,而不是事先进行科学的前沿调查。

世贸组织进入公式

进入世贸组织使情况有变化,这并不奇怪,通过商业刺激,在政府和私营部门等有关因素影响下,确保“知识产品”可自由在国际市场上。如果在这些利益集团所有表现形式的方式下,高等教育可自由贸易,就像香蕉或飞机。必须记住世贸组织的规则,贸易和服务协定(GATS )及其相关的总协定,是具有法律约束力。高等教育将包含在一项国际协议“雷达”之下,却并没有太多的分析,这很危险。当一些成为世贸组织体制要求和规定的一部分时,它是受复杂的安排的。这时高等教育的影响是巨大的,不仅是因为国际新规定,而且大学将在一个全新的方式下被定义:服务贸易总协定和世界贸易组织的首要目标是保证教育产品和各种机构进入市场。

在高等教育贸易中,当然,比香蕉更难以编纂。但是,现在正努力建立一个准则和法规制度,来进行高等教育的自由贸易。

世贸组织将有助于保证,学术机构或其他教育机构可以设立分支机构,在任何国家,以最小的限制出口学位课程,授予学位和证书,

投资于海外教育机构,聘请外国企业教练,不受管制地设立教育和培训计划通过远程技术等等。

如何进行鉴定或质量控制?会不会有公开或私下的,和新的和积极的非营利性高等教育之间的差别—“黄金标准世纪”?

各类教育产品将自由地从一个国家向另一个国家。版权,专利和许可规定,已成为国际条约的一部分,将进一步加强。对学术机构,程序,学位,或跨越国际边界的产品进行贸易调节变得非常困难。那些希望从事这种进口和出口可诉诸国际法庭和法律的行动。目前,对高等教育的管辖权完全掌握在国家当局的手中。

谁应控制高等教育?

每个国家都需要保持对学术机构的基本控制。同时,个别大学如果要发展,就需要充分自治和学术自由。几个世纪以来,传统的大学都表现在社会上的中心职能。虽然这一功能随时间在变化,但它并没有消失。自中世纪大学面临的民族主义的上升和16世纪宗教改革所面临的新的倡议和全球化的挑战是最严重的。在将近1千年里,大学机构的定义为核心的教育使命和学术界的共同价值观念。对于大部分此期间,大学被理解为不仅是提供实用的知识的教育机构,而且作为社会的中央文化机构。在19世纪,科学和研究被添加到学术使命。大学是社会认可得特殊机构,同时也因为他们的目标超出了日常的商业专门机构。现在,所有这一切受到威胁。

学术界本身就要对变化负相当大的一部分责任。一些大学也都愿意让自己陷入商业活动,并损害其传统角色。例如纽约大学和哥伦比亚大学等著名学府的子公司是以营利为辅的,这些都是妥协的象征。莫纳什大学,著名的澳大利亚的机构,建立海外分行用来牟利。芝加哥大学商学院在西班牙和新加坡设有分公司。中国大学都致力于成立以牟利为目的提供的咨询和技术公司。许多大学都在网上向世界各地课程和学位。

如果大学是作为智力机构而生产,他们必须密切关注其教学,学习和研究的核心责任。

保持忠于传统学术价值并不容易,但日益商业化的成本要大得多。

各国政府和其他公共当局需要给大学的支持,帮助他们完成他们的使命。不断压缩预算,需要更高的问责制,并坚持认为,从根本上改变大学,并为公众利益服务并不久远。市民也必须尊重高等教育的基本价值。

发展中国家具有特殊的,必须得到保护的学术需要,而且任何世贸组织式的条约,将不可避免地损害发展中国家新兴的学术系统。第三世界大学现参与了许多国际关系,但这些安排是根据国家的需要,并允许消费者选择项目和合作伙伴。

拟议的世界贸易组织的倡议让现正成为世界焦点的大学都感受到了它带来的压力。如果全世界高等教育受世界贸易组织的全面限制,学术界将大大改变大学服务于广大公众利益的想法就会受到削弱,大学将受到由国际条约和法律要求强制执行的市场压力。在发展中国家去促进国家和社会发展的目标就不可能实现。大学是一个有悠久历史和社会使命,并值得支持的特别机构。学术界服从世贸组织并实施市场将摧毁在任何社会的最有价值的机构。

翻译原文:

Higher Education and the WTO: Globalization Run Amok

Philip G. AltbachHigher

education is increasingly seen as a commercial product to be bought and sold like any other commodity. Higher education commercialization has now reached the global marketplace. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is considering a series of proposals to include higher education as one of its concerns, ensuring that the import and export of higher education be subject to the complex rules and legal arrangements of the WTO protocols and free of most restrictions. In the United States, the National Committee for International Trade in Education and a group of mainly for-profit education providers are supporting this initiative. The established higher education community, including the American Council on Education, is not involved in this undertaking. The WTO initiative poses a severe threat to the traditional ideals of the university, as well as to the national and even institutional control of education, and therefore needs careful scrutiny. We are in the midst of a true revolution in higher education, a revolution that has the potential to profoundly change our basic understanding of the role of the university. The implications are immense and as yet little discussed or understood. It is especially alarming, but not surprising, that the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Office of Service Industries is behind the effort to commercialize higher education in the United States and worldwide.

I am not arguing against globalization either as a reality or as a concept. Higher

education institutions everywhere are subject to global trends—massification and all of its implications, the impact of the new communications technologies, accountability of

academic institutions to government, an increasingly international and mobile academic profession, global research networks, and other phenomena.

Many of these developments link academic institutions and systems globally. The use of English as the lingua franca for scientific communication and for teaching, especially when combined with the Internet, makes communication easier and quicker. The advent of multinational higher education institutions makes it possible to disseminate new

curricular and other innovations quickly and to meet the immediate needs of students and the national economies of countries that lack adequate providers of higher education.

For centuries, universities were seen as institutions that provided education in the learned professions (law, medicine, and theology) and scientific disciplines.

Universities, as independent and sometimes critical institutions, preserved and

interpreted, and sometimes expanded, the history and culture of society. In the 19th

century, research was added to the responsibilities of the universities, followed a little later by service to society.

Academic institutions were, in the main, sponsored by the state or the church. Even privately sponsored institutions were defined by the service mission. Higher education was seen as a ―public good,‖ as something that provided a valuable contribution to society and was therefore worthy of support.

Universities were places for learning, research, and service to society through the application of knowledge. Academe was afforded a significant degree of insulation from the pressures of society—academic freedom—precisely because it was serving the broader good of society. Professors were often given permanent

appointments —tenure —to guarantee them academic freedom in the classroom and laboratory to teach and do research without fear of sanctions from society.

Downsides of Globalization

Today, trends such as the rise of the Internet and the globalization of knowledge have the potential for creating severe problems for academic institutions and systems in smaller or poorer nations. In a world divided into centers and peripheries, the centers grow stronger and more dominant and the peripheries become increasingly marginalized. Inequalities grow more pronounced. There is little leeway for academic systems or

individual universities to independently develop in the increasingly competitive and fast moving global higher education scene dominated by the world-class universities in the industrialized countries. The traditional academic center becomes ever stronger and more dominant –mainly in the English-speaking countries of the North (the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada) and in Australia, and in the larger countries of the European Union (notably Germany and France, and to some extent Italy and Spain).

The norms, values, language, scientific innovations, and knowledge products of

countries in the center crowd out other ideas and practices. These countries are home not only to the dominant universities and research facilities but also to the multinational corporations so powerful in the new global knowledge system. Information technology companies such as Microsoft and IBM, biotechnology and pharmaceutical firms (Merck or Biogen), multinational publishers like Elsevier or Bertelsmann, among others, dominate the new international commerce in knowledge, knowledge-based products, and

information technology. Smaller and poorer countries have little autonomy or competitive potential in the globalized world. Globalization in higher education exacerbates dramatic inequalities among the world’s universities.

The Commercialization of Knowledge and Higher Education

With the growing commercialization of higher education, the values of the

marketplace have intruded onto the campus. One of the main factors is the change in society’s attitude toward higher education—which is now seen as a ―private good‖

benefiting those who study or do research. In this view, it seems justified that the users should pay for this service as they would for any other service. The provision of

knowledge becomes just another commercial transaction. The main provider of public

funds, the state, is increasingly unwilling or unable to provide the resources needed for an expanding higher education sector. Universities and other postsecondary institutions are expected to generate more of their funding. They have had to think more like businesses and less like educational institutions.

In this context a logical development is the privatization of public universities—the selling of knowledge products, partnering with corporations, as well as increases in

student fees. The proliferation of private academic institutions of all kinds, especially in the for-profit sector, is another by-product of commercialization. Education companies, some of which call themselves universities, sell skills and training, awarding degrees or

certificates to customers (students). Research is seen as a fungible product rather than an inquiry conducted to advance the frontiers of science.

The WTO Enters the Equation

In these changed circumstances, it is not surprising that those motivated by

commerce, in government and in the private sector, would concern themselves with ensuring that ―knowledge products‖ are freely traded in the international marketplace. If these interest groups have their way, higher education in all of its manifestations will be subject to free trade discipline just like bananas or airliners. The rules of the WTO, and its related General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS), it must be remembered, are legally binding. There is a danger that regulations relating to higher education will be included in an international agreement ―under the radar‖ and without much analysis. When something becomes part of the WTO regime requirements and regulations, it is subject to complex arrangements. The implications for higher education are immense, not only because of a new set of international regulations but because the university will be defined in an entirely new way: the overriding goal of GATS and the WTO is to guarantee market access to educational products and institutions of all kinds.

The trade in higher education is, of course, more difficult to codify than bananas. But efforts are now under way to do precisely this—to create a regime of guidelines and regulations to institute free trade in higher education.

The WTO would help to guarantee that academic institutions or other education

providers could set up branches in any country, export degree programs, award degrees and certificates with minimal restriction, invest in overseas educational institutions, employ instructors for their foreign ventures, set up educational and training programs through distance technologies without controls, and so on.

How would accreditation or quality control be carried out? Would there be a

distinction made between public or private nonprofit higher education—the ―gold standard‖ for centuries—and the new and aggressive for-profit sector?

Educational products of all kinds would be freely exported from one country to

another. Copyright, patent, and licensing regulations, already part of international treaties, would be further reinforced. It would become very difficult to regulate the trade in

academic institutions, programs, degrees, or products across international borders. Those wishing to engage in such imports and exports would have recourse to international tribunals and legal action. At present the jurisdiction over higher education is entirely in the hands of national authorities.

Who Should Control Higher Education?

Every country needs to maintain essential control over its academic institutions. At the same time, individual universities need an adequate degree of autonomy and academic freedom if they are to flourish. For centuries, traditional universities have

performed a central function in society. While that function has changed over time, it has not disappeared. The challenge of the new initiatives and globalization generally is one of the most serious since the medieval universities faced the rise of nationalism and the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. For almost a millennium, universities have defined themselves as institutions with a core educational mission and a common understanding of the values of academe. For much of this period, universities were

understood not only as institutions that provided education in practical fields of knowledge but as central cultural institutions in society. In the 19th century, science and research were added to the academic mission. Universities were recognized as special institutions by society precisely because their goals went beyond everyday commerce. Now, all of this is under threat.

The academic community itself is in considerable part responsible for the changes. Some universities have all too willingly allowed themselves to be caught up in commercial activities and to compromise their traditional roles. The establishment of ―for-profit‖ subsidiaries by such renowned institutions as New York University and Columbia

University is symbolic of these compromises. Monash University, a well-known Australian institution, is establishing profit making branches overseas. The University of Chicago’s business school has opened branches in Spain and Singapore. Universities in China devote much of their attention to providing profit-making consulting and setting up technology companies. Many universities have gone ―online‖ to sell their courses and degrees to customers in all parts of the world.

If universities are to survive as intellectual institutions, they must pay close attention to their core responsibilities of teaching, learning, and research.

Maintaining loyalty to traditional academic values will not be easy, but the costs of growing commercialization are much greater.

Governments and other public authorities need to give the universities the support they need to fulfill their mission. Constantly squeezing the budget, demanding ever greater accountability, and insisting that the university fundamentally change its goals does not in the long run serve the public interest. The public must also respect the underlying values of higher education.

The developing countries have special academic needs that must be protected, and any WTO-style treaty would inevitably harm the emerging academic systems of the developing countries. Third World universities are now involved in many international relationships, but these arrangements are based on national needs and allow choice among programs and partners.

The proposed WTO initiatives bring all of the pressures now being felt by universities worldwide into sharp focus. If higher education worldwide were subject to the strictures of the WTO, academe would be significantly altered. The idea that the university serves a broad public good would be weakened, and the universities would be subject to all of the commercial pressures of the market-place—a marketplace enforced by international treaties and legal requirements. The goal of having the university contribute to national development and the strengthening of civil society in developing countries would be impossible to fulfill. Universities are indeed special institutions with a long history and a societal mission that deserve support. Subjecting academe to the rigors of a

WTO-enforced marketplace would destroy one of the most valuable institutions in any society.


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